Montaigne, Colonial Gluttony, and Knightian Uncertainty

Michel de Montaigne's essais "Des Coches" and "L'inégalité qui existe entre nous" offer a profound critique of European colonialism, social inequality, and the complex ethical dilemmas that arise in such historical contexts. Through the metaphor of ostentatious transformation of coaches and the examination of power dynamics, Montaigne confronts themes of exploitation, materialism, and cultural superiority that characterized the colonization of the New World. Incorporating the concept of Knightian Uncertainty, introduced by economist Frank Knight, as a framework for analysis provides insight into the historical context of European colonialism, while highlighting the contemporary relevance of Montaigne's ideas in addressing the moral challenges that accompany modern economic systems and cross-cultural encounters. Exploring the ethical concerns and decision-making processes through the lens of Knightian Uncertainty illuminates the enduring legacy and importance of Montaigne's essays in discussions on ethics, economics, and cultural exchange in uncertain circumstances.

Montaigne lived throughout the early to mid-16th century, a period when the Spanish conquests of the Americas began to garner widespread attention across Europe. The colonization of the New World by Europeans, particularly the Spanish, resulted in the exploitation of indigenous populations, the establishment of new markets, and the acquisition of vast amounts of wealth. These developments played a pivotal role in the rise of mercantilism, an economic theory that emphasized the importance of accumulating wealth and resources for the benefit of the nation. Mercantilism laid the groundwork for the emergence of modern capitalism, which would only thrive on colonialism’s expansion of trade networks, extraction of resources, and exploitation of labor

In "Des Coches," Montaigne’s critique of European colonialism and its interactions with indigenous cultures is apparent. Montaigne argues that excessive spending in pursuit of wealth and status undermines the dignity of monarchs, stating "L’étrangeté de ces inventions me donne à penser que c’est la marque d’une certaine petitesse d’esprit de la part des monarques, un témoignage du fait qu’ils ne se suffisent pas de ce qu’ils sont, mais cherchent à se montrer et se faire valoir par des dépenses excessives" (Montaigne 1092). This critique is closely linked to the exploitation and domination of indigenous peoples driven by Europeans' desire for gold, land, and power. Additionally, Montaigne discusses the role of clothing and personal appearance in reflecting social status and argues that private individuals need not dress extravagantly at home, whereas kings should invest in long-lasting displays of splendor, such as plate and furniture. Through "Des Coches," Montaigne challenges readers to reconsider the values and impacts of their actions in the context of colonial exploitation, critiquing the superficiality and materialism that characterized European colonialism.

Using the metaphor of coaches, Montaigne highlights the contradictions and moral complexities associated with the colonization of the New World. The luxurious coaches represent the European mindset characterized by materialism and a sense of cultural superiority, which ultimately led to exploitation and the erasure of indigenous lives and heritage. Montaigne skillfully conveys his critique in 'Des Coches': "Comme cela eût été mieux, et quelle amélioration pour la terre entière, si les premiers exemples que nous avons donnés et nos premiers comportements là-bas avaient suscité chez ces peuples l’admiration et l’imitation de la vertu, s’ils avaient tissé entre eux et nous des relations d’alliance fraternelle [...] Au contraire, nous avons exploité leur ignorance et leur inexpérience [...] à l’exemple et sur le modèle de nos propres mœurs" (Montaigne 1103). In this passage, Montaigne envisions an alternative approach to global interactions and cultural exchange—one based on mutual respect. His words emphasize the importance of humility and introspection when facing uncertain situations, urging for a more compassionate course of action.

One of the most significant consequences of European colonialism, as illustrated by Montaigne, was the exploitation of the native populations. In "Des Coches," Montaigne condemns the Europeans for their brutal treatment of the indigenous people, stating that they "ils se seraient bien contentés des meurtres que causent les nécessités de la guerre sans y ajouter une telle boucherie comme s’il s’agissait de bêtes sauvages, et si générale, autant qu’ils ont pu y parvenir par le fer et le feu" (Montaigne 1106). Montaigne further criticizes the European colonial powers for their relentless pursuit of gold, which led them down a path of enslaving the native populations and forcing them to work in mines under harsh conditions in pursuit of temporary tangible fulfillment.

While Montaigne is critical of the actions of the European colonial powers, he also expresses admiration for the simpler way of life in indigenous cultures. Montaigne argues that the natives were "ils ne nous devaient rien en matière de clarté d’esprit naturelle et de pertinence" (Montaigne 1101), highlighting their intellectual capabilities and potential. He also praises their devotion, observance of laws, goodness, liberality, loyalty, and plain dealing, qualities that he believes European colonizers lacked.

Montaigne's admiration for indigenous cultures is closely tied to his disapproval of European materialism, and this connection can be further analyzed in light of the concept of Knightian Uncertainty. In his observation of European colonialism, Montaigne recognizes that the Europeans, who possess superior technological and military capabilities, often exploit the knowledge imbalance between themselves and indigenous populations. Under the guise of cultural exchange, they impose their customs, values, and beliefs onto indigenous populations while disregarding the latter's unique knowledge and understanding of their own lands and traditions.

Knightian Uncertainty, as preeminently discussed in namesake Frank Knight's "Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit," pertains to the unpredictability and unknowability of certain outcomes in the face of change. According to Knight, "The fundamental uncertainties of economic life are the errors in predicting the future and in making present adjustments to fit future conditions" (Knight 259). Relating this concept to Montaigne's critique of European colonialism, the knowledge imbalance between Europeans and indigenous populations contributes to these uncertainties, as the colonizers fail to appreciate or acknowledge the value of the diverse knowledge systems that exist within these societies.

This critique of materialism is further connected to Montaigne's examination of the psychology behind inequality, as evident in his chapter "L'inégalité qui existe entre nous." He contends that "La servitude enchaine bien peu d’hommes, mais nombreux sont ceux qui s’y enchainent." (Montaigne 327), emphasizing the role that individuals play in perpetuating their own subjugation. In the context of colonialism, this notion can be applied to the internalization of inferiority by the colonized, which exacerbates the detrimental effects of European expansion and exploitation.

Montaigne's assertion that "Les honneurs que nous recevons de ceux qui nous craignent ne sont pas des honneurs." (Montaigne 327) further emphasizes the insidious nature of power dynamics in colonial relationships. While colonizers may have been praised or admired for their conquests, Montaigne underscores the hollowness and deceitfulness of such adulation. By connecting his critiques of European materialism with his insights on the psychological causes and consequences of inequality in colonial settings, Montaigne offers a comprehensive and penetrating analysis of the pernicious forces underpinning colonialism. This profound exploration urges readers to confront the foundations and consequences of such power structures, while also appreciating the merits and values of indigenous cultures.

The task of finding workable solutions to the intricate relationship between cultural knowledge, personal influence, and the perpetuation of inequalities in the context of colonialism is compounded by the inherent challenges presented by the transmission of advantages and disadvantages through generations. As Frank Knight states, "Innate ability, in the sense in which there is such a thing, is inevitably hereditary, and nothing can be done about it except to modify the conception of the individual's property rights in his own powers" (Knight 180). Recognizing this, it becomes vital to reevaluate these concepts and address the interconnectedness between cultural knowledge, personal abilities, and access to resources. Through this process, it may be possible to foster a more equitable and mutually beneficial exchange between diverse cultures and address the long-term consequences of colonialism, promoting greater understanding and cooperation among various cultural groups. Challenging the entrenched effects of colonialism, therefore, requires direct engagement with individual property rights and a commitment to nurturing cross-cultural dialogue and collaboration.

In "Des Coches," Montaigne critiques the 16th-century mindset driven by materialist ambitions, leading to colonization and the accompanying ethical uncertainties. These concerns echo Frank Knight's observations, where Knight states that "the nature of our conduct" is influenced by "the way in which we think about it" (Knight 54). He argues that Western imperial logic and rationalizations, driven by materialistic ambitions, fail to capture the full extent of humanness as it is inherently pushed into fallacy by the driving greedful motivations. Colonialism, fueled by European materialism and the belief in cultural superiority, overlooked the potential unintended consequences and the importance of valuing diverse cultures and perspectives.

Building on this critique of our pursuit of wealth and progress, Knight's analysis of the competitive system further reinforces Montaigne's arguments when he writes, "it is imperative that we bear in mind that the serpent's tail is always in the serpent's mouth, that what the competitive system tends to give back is just what is put into it in the way of human motives and human powers, natural, acquired, or conferred, and has in itself no moral attribute whatever" (Knight 180). Knight is urging caution against thinking of natural competitive adjustments as inherently moral, as they primarily reflect human motivations and the distribution of power in society. By integrating Knight's ideas with Montaigne's critique, it becomes clear that humility, moderation, and awareness of our ethical responsibilities are essential in addressing the challenges arising from the pursuit of wealth, progress, and globalization as they are intrinsically overlooked.

In "Constitutional Implications of Radical Subjectivism," the market's dynamic properties are emphasized for their role in promoting innovative exploration and creating new knowledge: "They provide not only room for trying out and exploring alternative solutions to problems, they are embedded in a constitutional framework that is supposed to make the explorative process work in ways that serve the interests of the participants" (Buchanon & Vanberg 127). However, the unintended consequences of such market-driven pursuits can result in unforeseen ethical dilemmas and social issues. For instance, Montaigne's critique of European colonialism in "Des Coches" highlights the negative outcomes and ambiguity surrounding the long-term impact when innovation and expansion lead to exploitation, oppression, and cultural erasure. This connection between Montaigne's analysis and the potential pitfalls of market-driven pursuits serves as a cautionary reminder to consider the ethical implications and potential repercussions of unbridled innovation.

The authors explore the role of creative choice in generating economic value and the impact of institutional structures on allowing creative expression. They highlight the necessity of appreciating creative choice in economic interactions, observing that "a generalized failure to appreciate the role of creative choice in providing the dynamic for economic interaction may have been an important causal element in economists’ failure to escape from the 'fatal conceit' that socialist organization represented" (Buchanon & Vanberg 121).

Rather than simply promoting cross-cultural understanding, this connection between Montaigne's critique and the concept of creative choice sheds light on the total loss of valuable cultural resources and innovative ideas when indigenous cultures are subjected to European colonialism. Montaigne's concerns reveal that the suppression of creativity and intellectual expression not only perpetuates inequality but also impoverishes the global experience. A more nuanced analysis of the relationship between creative choice, cultural preservation, and colonialism, puts into perspective the extent to which European colonization has limited the full potential of human knowledge and creative expression throughout history.

In conclusion, Michel de Montaigne's "Des Coches" presents a powerful critique of European colonialism and the related moral complexities, drawing attention to exploitation, materialism, and cultural superiority. Applying the framework of Knightian Uncertainty, Montaigne elucidates the ethical concerns arising from European greed, ambition, and the erasure of indigenous lives and cultural heritages. This framework also aids in understanding modern economic systems, trade, investment, and resource allocation in contemporary globalized society. The enduring legacy of Montaigne's ideas extends to addressing the challenges of globalization, international relations, economic inequality, and cultural clashes in the 21st century, emphasizing the need for humility, moderation, and awareness of consequences. In an increasingly interconnected world, Montaigne's call for a moral and considerate approach to global interactions and cultural exchange, being conscious of uncertainty, remains relevant today, thus inspiring significant discussions on ethics, economics, and cultural exchange.